Preimplantation Genetic Diagnostics (PGD) and FISH, Method for Genetic Diagnosis

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) refers to the procedure that is performed on embryos prior to implantation, sometimes even on oocytes prior to fertilization. This is one of the forms for prenatal diagnosis. PGD is an adjunctive procedure to In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF). PGD starts with embryo biopsy which can be performed on day 3, day 4 or day 5 of development. It is used to prevent genetic diseases or to select the most suitable embryos for transfer to establish a pregnancy. Therefore, controlled ovarian stimulation, egg retrieval, fertilization and embryo development occur as usual with IVF. Usually embryos are biopsied by our experienced embryologists using micromanipulation techniques to remove one cell without impacting the further development of the embryo. PGD is a safe procedure, it is used for screening for a specific genetic disease, is usually performed on women who are at a higher risk of an unhealthy birth. The removed cell can be tested by several methods including:
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) for possible gene disordersFluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH)Chromosomal Microarray Analysis (CMA)
Let's cover in more details the Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH) method.
FISH
FISH is the most commonly used test to determine the chromosomal constitution of an embryo. This method identifies certain regions on chromosomes using fluorescent DNA probes. FISH tests can find small pieces of chromosomes that are missing or have extra copies. These small changes can be missed by the overall karyotype test (another type of chromosomal test). FISH analysis can, for instance, be used to reveal the missing fragments of DNA on chromosome 22 that are characteristic of velocardiofacial syndrome. In contrast to karyotyping, it can be used on interphase chromosomes, so that it can be used on PBs, blastomeres and TE samples. The cells are fixated on glass microscope slides and hybridised with DNA probes. Each of these probes are specific for part of a chromosome, and are labelled with a fluorochrome. There is a limited number of fluorochromes, therefore the number that can be analyzed concurrently is severely limited.
When the X-linked chromosome disorder is not present, the X and Y chromosomes are used instead as an internal FISH control for sex determination. More probes can be added to check for aneuploidies, particularly those that could give raise to a viable pregnancy (such as a trisomy 21). The use of probes for chromosomes X, Y, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 21 and 22 has the potential of detecting 70% of the aneuploidies found in spontaneous abortions.
Three consecutive rounds of FISH can be carried out on the same chromosomes. In the case of chromosome rearrangements, specific combinations of probes have to be chosen that flank the region of interest. The FISH technique is considered to have a low error rate.
The main problem of the use of FISH to study the chromosomal constitution of embryos is the elevated mosaicism rate observed at the human preimplantation stage. More than 800 embryos were tested and the result from the analysis showed that approximately 75% of preimplantation embryos are mosaic, of which approximately 60% are diploid-aneuploid mosaic and approximately 15% aneuploid mosaic. Li and co-workers found that 40% of the embryos diagnosed as aneuploid on day 3 turned out to have a euploid inner cell mass at day 6. Staessen and collaborators found that 17.5% of the embryos diagnosed as abnormal during PGS, and subjected to post-PGD reanalysis, were found to also contain normal cells, and 8.4% were found grossly normal. However, it is questionable as to whether two cells from an embryo can result in proper test result. And the question remains as to whether viable embryos are being wasted due to the constrictions of the techniques used.
Who is the best candidate for preimplantation genetic diagnosis? PGD is indicated for patients with:
Advanced maternal ageImplantation failuresPrevious miscarriagesFamily history (including previous child born with chromosomal and genetic disorder)Parental aneuploidyBalanced translocationSome male factor infertilityFamily balance and sex selection
Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis can be used to help:
Decrease miscarriagesReduce the occurrence of Trisomic or Turner Syndrome offspring and other chromosomal abnormalitiesReduce multiple pregnanciesDetermine when to use donor eggs in poor prognosis patients (For example: Advanced maternal age)

The Benefits of Being Fitted For a Bra

I cannot think of one issue more universal to women than finding a great fitting bra. In fact, every bra fitting website and television show segment makes mention of the fact that 85% of American women are wearing the wrong size bra. Some of you may be scratching your heads and wondering what the big deal is. After all, it's just underwear. But you are wrong!
Some women have high breasts with fuller tissue up top. Some, like me, have lower breasts with very little fullness on top. Many women have "side breasts" and need more support to push the tissue in and up a bit, while other women do not need that support. Add in the fact that we need to wear these bras for 12-15 hours a day so they need to be comfortable, and you have an engineering nightmare.
Put in too much wire and women get stabbed and poked; not enough wire and the girls sag. Put in too much Lycra and they have no support, not enough and the bra is uncomfortably stiff. Then there is the issue of where most of the support should come from. While for many years the reigning wisdom stated that support came from the shoulders (useless if you have heavier breasts because the straps dig into your shoulders), the current line is that the support comes from the strap around the body, putting many of us into a smaller number size than before.
I started out life as a 34B, which is still the most popular wrong size bra. By the time I was 35, after years of hormonal issues and weight changes, I sized as a 38D via Lucille the bra lady at Bala Cynwyd, PA's Saks Fifth Avenue (immortalized in Sex and the City). But then even those crazy expensive Wacoal bras didn't fit right and I was in limbo again.
It occurred to me that in Manhattan I should be able to find a good bra fitter and bra, and that landed me first at the Upper East Side's Linda the Bra Lady. I entered the tiny shop and was immediately swooped upon and measured to a 36DD, but then all the bras they sold me were high end Fs (DDDs) which they said I somehow needed, but as I thought in the dressing room, they were too big. Exactly one year later I went to the Upper West Side's venerable Bra Smyth, where they sized me back to a 38D, and I spent a year falling out of the extremely expensive too small cups.
One day I was discussing this with a friend who works for Victoria's Secret and she suggested that I check them out. She told me that the bra engineering was sound, the new fabrics (including memory foam) were light and supportive, there were good sports bras as well as every day bras, the prices were good, and they had sizes up to a DDD cup. So I trucked on over to Soho to see Linda, their top bra fitter.
Linda took one look at me and put me in a 36DD. It fit perfectly (since I am neither a DDD or a D; somehow Linda's sized me correctly but then sold me the wrong size) and was literally half the price of the more expensive lines I had been wearing. Ladies, wearing a correctly fitted bra is like losing a few pounds and getting better posture. You will look better and feel more comfortable.
The moral of this story is that all women should be wearing a great fitting bra. That bra should be light, supportive, comfortable, and most of all should make you feel like you look your best! Go to good store where they train their bra specialists to be fitted, but do not be swayed by sales people or supposed experts. If the bra feels weird in the fitting room it will not get any better on your body as you wear it, so don't waste time and money. This experience opened my eyes to the fact that it is not necessary that I wear the most expensive bras, but the bras that fit me the best.

Some Tell-Tale Signs of Postpartum Syndrome and Some Preventive Measures

Postpartum syndrome, more commonly known as the "baby blues", is one of the most common problems linked with children and was documented as early as the 19th century. This syndrome is best identified by the depression the woman experiences within four weeks after giving birth. It affects approximately 13% of women after childbirth, with one out of every eight deliveries in the US leading to this syndrome. It can also lead to more serious type of psychosis, which affects one of every thousand women.
Sadly, only half of the people with this syndrome are detected. And those who remain undiagnosed can result with devastating outcomes not only on themselves, but also on their family. What's more, postpartum syndrome is not just exclusive to women.
Contrary to common misconception, men can also experience this syndrome as well, with 10% of new fathers reported to experience such a condition. And much like with women, the symptoms of postpartum syndrome in men is the difficulty of caring for their children on their own while suffering from depression.
The said syndrome can be harmful to one's mental and emotional health as well as those people around you, so early detection and prevention is crucial in order to keep it from ruining what should be the joyful even of childbirth.
Symptoms
The onset of postpartum syndrome usually occurs within four weeks after giving birth. These include feelings of severe sadness, emptiness, and emotional numbness. People who suffer from this psychological disturbance are also easy to cry and do so often, as well as irritable and quick to anger. There is also the tendency to withdraw from relationships with family, friends and from activities that are normally pleasurable to the sufferer, as they feel a strong sense of failure or inadequacy. The depression may also cause a constant feeling of tiredness, sleep difficulties, overeating or loss of appetite.
In addition, postpartum syndrome can also cause the sufferer to experience intense concern and anxiety about the baby or lack of interest. In the worst cases, sufferers may have suicidal thoughts or fears of harming the baby, delusions and false beliefs, hallucinations, and other severe depressive symptoms.
Prevention
If you feel that you are prone to postpartum depression or have experienced it in the past, the first recommended course of action is to get in touch with your doctor, therapist, psychiatrist, and other professional healthcare provider. If you have experienced this syndrome before and treated successfully with medication, you may want to think about taking the medication again immediately after giving birth.
It is also important that you talk with your partner and other loved ones; let them know what you might go through and what might help in dealing with you suffering this type of psychological problem. You should also establish a support plan in case you do experience postpartum syndrome. Assign someone to help you take care of your baby, for example, or get in touch with a postpartum doula to help you ease through this troubled period of your life.
Adverse effects such as suicidal tendencies and psycho-somatic impacts can be mitigated if the problems are detected early. It is always best to seek the services of healthcare professionals such as psychiatrists.

Understanding Cervical Mucus and Natural Gender Selection

There are many different techniques to help choose your baby's gender naturally. Some of these techniques, like diet, take time to work in your body and make you "girl friendly" or "boy friendly." There, are, however, methods you can use just around the time of ovulation to help boost your chances even more. This article will cover a few of these methods.

Don't try to use just these techniques alone -- you really do want to take a month or two to follow diet, exercise, and lifestyle plans to choose your baby's gender. The below techniques will just enhance those plans even more.

Why These Methods Help

You're going to use diet and exercise for 6-12 weeks. If that's the case, why do you have some supplements that you use only around ovulation? It's because these supplements help influence your cervical mucus, which is not only important to getting pregnant, it's important for choosing your baby's gender.

Some women naturally have a buildup of cervical mucus, or fertile mucus. Their pattern starts out pretty dry or with just a baseline of slight, sticky vaginal lubrication. As they get closer to ovulation, that builds up and becomes milky or lotion-y. These fluid types are just building up to ovulation, and they're fairly acidic (low pH levels).

As you get close to ovulation, it's normal to get even more fertile fluid build-up. This cervical mucus is clearer, stretchy, and even slippery. It looks a lot like egg whites. In fact, it's called "egg-white fertile." Some women never get this fluid and some women get lots of it. Some women see a distinct build-up pattern, and some don't. This very fertile fluid is quite alkaline (high pH levels).

The supplements you take only around ovulation help because they can help you change the normal fluid patterns you see in your own cycle.

Taking Supplements for a Boy

You can take supplements especially for a boy just to influence your fertile fluid overall. It's also thought that having a high fat diet and a lot of the Omega-3's (take high-quality fish oils!) will help boost your cervical mucus levels, too.

The supplement you can take is Guaifenesin. It's the active ingredient in a lot of expectorant cough syrups, the ones that help you bring out drainage and mucus that gets lodged in your chest and lungs when you're sick. It loosens the mucus and the fluids. You don't want to take a cough syrup because it can also have things in it that can dry up fluids. You can get Guaifensein over the counter. Take that just in the 2-3 days around ovulation because it helps to loosen those fluids up, make more fertile fluids and make it more likely that you'll get a boy.

You can also use a lubricant when you actually try to conceive. Preseed, which is made especially for couples trying to get pregnant, is a good one. Actual egg white also works well, since it has a high pH and is very similar to fertile mucus.

Consider something like an antihistamine or Sudafed if you're planning for a girl. These help dry up cervical mucus. You want to be drier and have a more hostile environment if you're trying to get pregnant with a girl. Those little X-bearing sperm, the little girl-making sperm, are much heartier than the boy-making sperm. They're more likely to survive and get through to fertilize the egg.

You can also use a vaginal moisturizer like RepHresh, Replens, or Aci-jel in the few days around ovulation. These drop your vaginal pH levels way down and make your internal environment more acidic.

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The Best Strategy To Burn The Last 10 Pounds Fast

If you want to learn how to lose weight and finally shed those last few pounds that just won't seem to leave your body regardless of what you do, you need to learn some top notch strategies that will enable faster success.
Most people don't have too hard of a time learning how to lose weight when first beginning. Those initial pounds come off relatively quickly and easily as the body has a higher metabolic rate and isn't clinging onto stored body fat all that intensely.
But, as you get leaner and learner, it's perfectly normal to find things become far more difficult.
That's where the following strategies come into play to help you learn how to lose weight fast.
Let's look at what you should know.
Zigzag Your Calories
The very first tip to help you learn How to lose weight fast is to consider zigzagging your calorie intake. Rather than eating a very low calorie intake for an extended period of time and having the metabolic rate adapt to this, slowing down how many calories it burns daily, stagger your calorie intake across the week.
Have a few very low calorie days and then add in a few higher calorie days. The combination of this will keep your metabolism guessing as to what's coming next.
In return, you keep burning fat off at an accelerated pace. Plus, the diet is that much more enjoyable as well.
Go Very Low Carb/High Protein For One Week
Second, you might also consider going on a very low carb, high protein diet for a one week period. This is a fast way to jumpstart weight loss progress but you can only do it for a brief period of time.
Going too long without carbohydrates in the diet will have negative consequences, so limit yourself to just one week on this intense diet.
After that, go back to a more moderate fat loss program. As you go low carb, make sure that you are still eating plenty of fresh vegetables however as these are going to provide the nutrients that your body needs during this time.
Take A Break From Your Workouts
Finally, the last thing to consider is taking a break from your workouts. Often times too much exercise combined with an intense diet is what causes problems to occur, so by taking a short break, you ease up on the body slightly so it won't hold onto body fat stores as readily.
For the time being, simply focus on maintaining a good diet. If you do this, you should be able to maintain better dietary control and will feel better going about your workouts when you return back to the gym after the week off is up.
So there you have some quick ways to learn how to lose weight when you're struggling to get those 10 pounds off. Often times some program re-adjustment will be necessary as you get down to the final few to get them off your body for good.

The Harmful Effects of Smoking While Pregnant

Smoking during pregnancy is more common than many of us would like to think. There are some women in today's society who want to quit, but honestly don't know how. In other instances, there are a very few women who don't care to think about their unborn child and the health risks that are involved.
There are some women who are not aware of or don't understand how serious this matter is, or how serious is can become. With proper information, some expecting mothers may be willing to stop cold turkey or seek help for their addiction.
The Dangerous Side
Many mothers believe that they are safe because they aren't consuming or addicted to hard drugs, such as crack or cocaine, but in this instance, one isn't better than the other. Smoking cigarettes while you're pregnant can cause more problems than any mother can imagine. Some women are curious and want to know what's the harm in smoking while you're expecting. A lot of people aren't aware that cigarette smoke contains more than 2,000 different types of chemicals. Needless to say, these chemicals are not beneficial to the mother or her baby. Nicotine and carbon monoxide are the two ingredients that are found in cigarettes that are to blame for several pregnancy complications. In this instance, a few complications include premature birth, stillbirth, and low birth weight.
The Effects
Even though a few cigarettes here and there are a lot safer than one or two packs per day, it's crucial to the wellness of the mother and the baby for the mother to quit smoking altogether. As far as the weight and size of the baby is concerned, smoking can greatly affect this factor. Here, if the mother smokes a pack per day throughout her pregnancy, she will be putting her baby at risk to weigh half a pound less than it normally would. Here, if the mother had a two packs per day habit, the baby could weigh one pound or more less than it actually should. In this situation, there are a few mothers that will welcome the fact of having to deliver a small baby, but this could have long-term negative effects.
The Body and Lungs
When a baby is underweight, they have a body to match. Here, a baby's lungs may not be fully developed or able to operate on their own. Here, the baby will have to remain on a respirator during the first week or more of their lives. Due to the fact that the baby of a mother with a smoking addiction may have delayed development of the lungs, this can cause serious problems for the child later on during the course of their lives.
The Heart
For expecting mothers who smoked heavily during their first trimester, the baby will be at a greater risk for heart complications. In this event, it's best to quit smoking as soon as you find out that you're expecting. If you feel that you aren't able to quit, seek guidance from your doctor and programs that are set in place to help a person quit smoking.
The Brain
Contrary to popular belief, smoking while you're pregnant could have several long-term effects on a baby's brain. In this instance, the child could have behavioral issues, a low IQ, and even learning disabilities. The entire nine months of pregnancy is an important part of a baby's life. Every week of pregnancy marks an important milestone of growth and development.
The Solution
There are several methods that an expecting mother can use to quit smoking successfully. It's a good idea to ask your friends and family for help. In this situation, your close friends and loved one can create the awesome support group that you need to help you quit smoking once and for all. If you don't live close to any of your friends or relatives, join a group for smokers and make new friends. A lot of people feel better when they have a friend along for their tough journey.

Urinary Incontinence Products

Urinary Incontinence is a phenomenon where an individual suffers from involuntary leakage of urine. This may cause problems in the life of the patient due to the stress and embarrassment. People even feel embarrassed to report about the problem to their doctors; as a result it occurs due to underlying treatable medical condition which us under reported to the doctors. The main cause of this disease is uncontrolled diabetes, excessive consumption of fluids, not only this; aerated drinks such as cola beverages and also the ones which contain caffeine stimulate the bladder. In men one of the major causes might be enlargement of their prostate gland which might lead to cancer in later stages. It may also cause due to any damage done to the nervous system, like the brain, spinal cord, etc...
There are drugs available for people to help them control their problem. But there is a high risk of side effects which becomes an issue of concern among the drug users. Nowadays, people can cope up with the inconvenience caused to them with the help of Urinary Incontinence Products available in the markets. There are various types of catheters available along with absorbent pads which are thin and not bulk and hence are comfortable to wear regularly. There is even tight-fitting underwear available with thin liners on them to absorb the urine.
There are separate products available for both men and women. For men there is an external urine collection device. It is similar to a condom and is to be worn over the penis. It is called a condom or even a Texas catheter in some places. A tube is fixed to it which ends into a collection bag, which can be tied to the leg. This product holds a considerable amount of urine with little odor and minimal skin irritation.
Products for women are also available, but most of them are pads which are thin but have high storage capacities. They are available in various sizes such as small, medium and large. Some of these are also reusable. Mostly those are the absorbent underwear. There are also certain products available which can prevent the beds and sofas from becoming wet; these may be disposable or reusable. Some new products have the ability to absorb liquid away from the surfaces. The Urinary Incontinence Products are available broadly in the stores. One can also buy them on-line on reasonable rates.

What Are Polycystic Ovaries (PCOS)

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) was first described in 1935 as a hormonal disease that affects premenopausal women that may result in infertility. The main clinical features are:
Enlarged thickened ovaries with cyst-like folliclesAbsence of periodsAnovulationExcessive production of steroid hormones,AcnePigmentation of the skinSkin tagsPelvic painSleep apnoeaExcessive hair growth
However symptoms may vary in each patient, not all patients will show all symptoms making it more difficult to diagnose.
In PCOS the development of an egg in the ovary does not occur, instead multiple follicles form and continue to mature to form cysts. Pelvic pain may occur due to the inflammation of the abnormal cyst tissue.
Abnormal skin pigmentation is caused by increased levels of insulin in the blood, infiltrating the skin and causing pigmentation. It is seen behind the neck and in skin folds. It is a symptom for insulin resistance which is common in PCOS sufferers particularly where obesity is a factor.
Diagnosis of PCOS is made by investigating blood levels of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinising Hormone (LH) and Testosterone. FSH is expected to be either normal or below the normal range.
The relevant range depends on the stage of the menstrual cycle when the sample is taken. LH is expected to be increased in PSOS. The normal ratio for FSH and LH is expected to 1:1. A positive result for PCOS would show a ratio of 3 or more.
Testosterone levels are also expected to be high. Women with PCOS may also show abnormal lipid and insulin levels. Testosterone is responsible for the abnormal hair growth seen in PCOS. Ultrasound scans are also carried out to confirm the diagnosis.
PCOS has a connection to insulin resistance caused by a defect in the normal response to insulin. Studies show that there is a reduced insulin activity in adipose (fat storing) tissue and skeletal muscle. It is believed that high levels of fatty acids may affect the liver causing glucose intolerance and insulin resistance.
It is thought that, excluding polycystic ovaries, men may suffer from the same symptoms as women such as increased levels of steroid hormone, insulin resistance, abnormal hair growth and acne, particularly those with female relatives who have been diagnosed with PCOS. It may therefore be beneficial to check insulin resistance in male relatives of PCOS women.
Genetics and environmental influences seem to affect the prevalence of PCOS. The environmental issues such as obesity and a sedentary lifestyle can be reversed causing an improvement in insulin resistance. It can also reduce the probability of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus.
A diagnosis of PCOS means that other possible conditions need to be monitored for life eg. cardiac disease, metabolic syndrome, infertility, cancer and problems during pregnancy. There is a possibility of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus however this possibility can be reduced in obese women if they lose weight and maintain a health exercise regime.
Weight loss also improves cardiac function and so reduces the probability of developing cardiac disease. It is possible that cancer may develop with PCOS. This is more likely to be due to the hormone imbalance than polycystic ovaries.
It is therefore important to eat healthily and take regular exercise to reduce your risk of insulin resistance related diseases. It is also important to have regular health checks to monitor your weight and watch for the early signs of abnormal changes. Remember, if an abnormality is found sooner rather than later it is far more likely to improve the chance of successful treatment.
If you are in any doubt make sure you speak to your doctor.

What Does Mexican Wild Yam Do for Women?

The many uses of Mexican Wild Yam go back through the ages and cultures: it is not a new plant when it comes to traditional natural health, even though it only came to notice in America and Europe in the 1940s. North American Indians have been using this plant for centuries to assist with women's problems from menstruation through to menopause and since the late 1950s it was used to manufacture the first synthetic female contraceptive pill. Yet it is a product of Mother Nature and contains precursors to female hormones! In general, yams are a staple part of the Asian, African and Oceanian diet, where they are as versatile in used as potatoes. They are used in casseroles, chips, snacks, sweets and soups as they are nutritious and grow in abundance.
If you are familiar with the climbing vine, then you may well recognise the wild yam plant, which is itself a member of the vine family. Lightish green, medium-sized heart-shaped leaves weave and wrap their way around any available stake to as the wild yam loves to climb and loves to entwine itself with whatever local foliage is available. It is estimated that wild yam takes approximately 4 years to grow from seed to fully grown and prefers growing in woodlands.
Out of the estimated 600 varieties of wild yam, Mexican Wild Yam is one of the most well-known. Bought to us directly from Mother Nature, this plant keeps its best secrets hidden, underground! The actual fleshy roots or so-called tubers of the Mexican Wild Yam grow underground. The underground stem of a mature plant may have many tubers. These are the part of the plant that have the highest concentration of the plant's chemicals and it is these that are linked to having a positive impact on women's health.
The root of this plant is said to be rich in the plant substance known as diosgenin. Diosgenin has properties similar to progesterone which is why is it is often referred to as a natural progresterone. In fact, diosgenin is a plant steroid that is used to synthetize various hormones including progesterone, estrogen and testosterone.
Dioscorea villosa is the plant's scientific name. Dioscorea is the botanical name from the Greek physician, Dioscorides Pedanius (c.40-90 AD) and the word 'villlosa' means 'hairy' in Latin.
North American Indian women used this plant to help with the flushes of menopause, the pains of childbirth and those of menstruation. It was even used as a natural contraceptive. This tuber was used as an aphrodisiac and to assist vaginal dryness. Did it work for them? Well the answer is they used this plant for many generations...